{"id":75,"date":"2024-04-30T12:25:29","date_gmt":"2024-04-30T12:25:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/?p=75"},"modified":"2024-10-01T20:09:08","modified_gmt":"2024-10-01T20:09:08","slug":"who-makes-the-trail","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/2024\/04\/30\/who-makes-the-trail\/","title":{"rendered":"Trailology and Governance"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

– Who “Makes” the Trail?<\/em> – A Trail Governance Study from Taiwan<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ming-Chien Hsu (\u5f90\u9298\u8b19)
Assistant professor, Center for General Education, National Tsing Hua University
Deputy Executive Director, Taiwan Thousand Miles Trail Association
Trailology Instructor, Taiwan Community College
Taipei, Taiwan<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Jacky Tao (\u9676\u4fca\u6210)
Head of International Relations,\u00a0
Taiwan Thousand Miles Trail Association
Taipei, Taiwan<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u96a8\u8457\u7576\u4ee3\u904a\u61a9\u6216\u74b0\u5883\u4fdd\u8b77\u7684\u9700\u6c42\uff0c\u6b65\u9053\u7ba1\u7406\u8207\u7dad\u8b77\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\u4e5f\u56e0\u61c9\u4e0d\u540c\u570b\u5bb6\u6216\u5340\u57df\u7684\u6b77\u53f2\u8207\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b78\uff0c\u53ca\u61c9\u904b\u800c\u751f\u7684\u516c\u79c1\u5354\u529b\u6a21\u5f0f\u800c\u751f\u3002\u7531\u65bc\u9019\u4e9b\u591a\u91cd\u56e0\u7d20\u7684\u4f5c\u7528\uff0c\u6211\u5011\u4e3b\u5f35\u6b65\u9053\u7684\u7814\u7a76\uff0c\u610f\u5373\u6b65\u9053\u5b78\uff08trailology\uff09\uff0c\u672c\u8cea\u4e0a\u5373\u662f\u7814\u7a76\u6cbb\u7406\u6a21\u5f0f\u7684\u5b78\u554f\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u5728\u9019\u7bc7\u77ed\u6587\u4e2d\uff0c\u6211\u5011\u4ee5\u53f0\u7063\u7684\u6848\u4f8b\u51fa\u767c\uff0c\u7531\u653f\u6cbb\u793e\u6703\u5b78\u8207\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b78\u7684\u89d2\u5ea6\uff0c\u5206\u6790\u5e7e\u7a2e\u6b65\u9053\u4fee\u7bc9\u7406\u5ff5\u578b\u614b\uff0c\u4e5f\u671f\u671b\u85c9\u7531\u672c\u6b21\u5927\u6703\u7684\u767c\u8868\u8207\u5206\u4eab\uff0c\u64f4\u5145\u570b\u969b\u6848\u4f8b\u8207\u7406\u8ad6\u7d50\u69cb\u3002<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Animals and creatures roamed the earth without needing a specified linear walkway; it is only when humans appeared, only when we purposefully and regularly walked the same routes, to hunt, to trade, or to commute, subsequently leading to the community-based maintenance of said routes, that \u201ctrail\u201d gains its modern definition: a route that is followed for a particular purpose.1<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nowadays, driven by recreational needs and their complementary environmental protection purposes, we started to develop various trail maintenance\/stewardship modes and different systems of trail management, based on our respective public-private collaboration models, which further stem from our histories and political philosophies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Because of these various factors at work, we can say that the study of trails, or \u201ctrailology\u201d per se, is fundamentally a study that investigates how human society systematically considers or handles the maintenance and management of trails. The study, whether in an academic sense or from a pragmatic perspective, is intertwined with the study of modes of governance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

How are trails managed in a certain manner, and what measures and thinkings can be adopted if we want to push for a \u201cparadigm shift\u201d? In this piece, we provide some theoretical frameworks and preliminary comparative analysis we have done in Taiwan. We hope this could serve as a dialogue and experience exchange for trail practitioners, and an incentive for future international studies for academics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Trails, Techniques and Governance<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

By definition, when trails enter into nature, whether we view it as a technical object, a human activity, or a knowledge system including maintenance and the philosophy behind, it is a display of technique. The formulation of techniques is not objective, as recent studies from Science, Technology and Society (STS) shows. Therefore, one needs to analyze the sociological factors as well as the political-economy behind, including ownership, control and accessibility.
On the other hand, techniques are also strongly related with the struggle between state and civil society. Who allocates resources when it comes to trail maintenance? Whose responsibility it is to build or maintain the trails? Such questions fall into the domain of political sociology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Based on Taiwan\u2019s history, construction policies and norms, we combine the two theoretical frameworks above, and come up with four trail construction\/ maintenance ideal-types:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/td>Who Controls the Construction Norm<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>
Technocracy<\/td>Folks<\/td><\/tr>
Who Allocates Resources<\/strong><\/td>State<\/td>State Scenic Model<\/td>State Conquer Model<\/td><\/tr>
Civil Society<\/td>Public Participation Model<\/td>Community Self-help Model<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>
trail construction\/maintenance ideal types <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Community self-help model would be the earliest mode of maintenance. Due to limitations in capability or resources, neither the state nor the technocracy (mostly engineers and technicians) intervene.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

State conquer model refers mainly to when Taiwan was under Qing Dynasty and Japanese colonial rule, when trails (routes) were built with force to suppress revolts. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

State scenic model is the prominent mode in Taiwan. It refers to an alliance between the government and engineers, where the former controls construction resources (often via budgets and construction outsourcing) and the latter controls engineering standards, resulting in collaborative trail projects.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Finally, the public participation model, which is also the one TMI Trail has been advocating for the last decade, wishes to transform the state into a coordinator, and getting the hiking as well as environmental NGOs involved in setting the construction norms. This is also the philosophy behind TMI Trail\u2019s eco-craft trail activities.2<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Trail Governance and Political Philosophy<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Based on different political philosophies, the institutional arrangements of public and individual rights vary. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In political sociology, pluralism argues that the primary arena of politics lies within society rather than the state. One of the most notable examples is Alexis de Tocqueville’s observations in Democracy in America<\/em>, where he noted the proactive nature of political associations in the United States is that it \u201cgives rise to an executive power which remedies the inconvenience before anybody has thought of recurring to an authority superior to that of the persons immediately concerned.\u201d This underlying distrust of the state can be understood in Sarah Mittlefehldt’s book Tangled Roots: The Appalachian Trail and American Environmental Politics<\/em>, where the establishment of the Civilian Conservation Corps by President Franklin Roosevelt to participate in the construction of the Appalachian Trail, is seen as an intrusion of state power. Even the National Trails System Act<\/em> of 1968, which was globally considered progressive, was still perceived as state intervention by Americans.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Corporatism, as Peter J. Williamson pointed out, gained its foundation from the Catholic tradition in Europe, emphasizing social unity and nationalism. Under corporatist structures, citizen groups are absorbed into the state system. They establish institutionalized relationships with the state through legitimate channels, providing input and participating in government decision. Philippe Schmitter further distinguishes corporatism into state corporatism and societal corporatism, with the latter particularly emphasizing the post-World War II corporatism’s elements of liberal democracy and social centrism elements.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

During the Central & Eastern Europe Study Tour organized by the World Trails Network in 2023, we observed the roles played by hiking associations in trail maintenance in countries such as Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Poland. From a political sociology perspective, the hiking associations in Central and Eastern European countries, which have experienced communist regimes, seem to have evolved from pluralism before the two World Wars to state corporatism afterward, with characteristics of being transmission belts under state integration. After democratization, they are moving towards societal corporatism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the case of Taiwan, influenced by Confucian culture’s \u201corder of stratified closeness\u201d (Fei Hsiao-tung), it tends to lean towards communitarianism in political philosophy. During the martial law period, the Kuomintang itself adopted a Leninist party-state system, leaving a legacy of “strong state, weak society” under authoritarian rule. Civil society relied on government mobilization and the provision of public services, falling under state corporatism in political sociology. After democratization, local construction became tied to factional politics, forming a \u201cpatron-client relationship\u201d (Wu, Nai-teh), where political support was exchanged for favors. Trail projects were a part of this. It wasn’t until the 1990s that civil society gradually matured, with increased initiative and responsibility for voluntary participation in public affairs, leading to a shift towards pluralism. The grassroots trail movement emerged against this backdrop, advocating for the paradigm shift towards citizen participation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Closing Remarks<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The differences in political philosophy and cultural contexts among different countries explain the operation and characteristics of civil societies in each country, as well as the interaction patterns between the state and society. When using the frameworks proposed in this paper for cross-national comparative researches, regional cultural characteristics or key events influencing policies may also be incorporated to enrich the details, and these models may change over time.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the past, theories related to civil society research have been rarely used to analyze organizations and social movements related to trails. Interdisciplinary theoretical frameworks may provide insights, and this paper attempts to make initial explorations using the case of Taiwan. Further research is warranted to enrich case studies from various countries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Footnotes<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

1<\/sup> Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2 <\/sup>While these models might seem chronological, several models might co-exist, and might be in a struggle till now. For more detailed explanation and analysis, please refer to Hsu (2011). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fei, X. (1948). From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society<\/em>. Shanghai: The Commercial Press.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hsu, M.-c., & Lin, T.-h. (2011). Changing the Path: Civil Society and Technological Change of Taiwan’s Tourist Trail. Taiwanese Journal for Studies of Science, Technology and Medicine<\/em> (13), 109-58.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Mittlefehldt, S. (2013). Tangled roots: The Appalachian Trail and American Environmental Politics<\/em>. Seattle: University of Washington Press.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Schmitter, P. C. (1974). Still the Century of Corporatism? The Review of Politics<\/em>, 36(1), 85\u2013131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tocqueville, A. de. (2004). Democracy in America<\/em> (Vol. 1). (H. Reeves, Trans.) The Project Gutenberg eBook. Accessed 2024-04-29.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Williamson, P. J. (1989). Corporatism in Perspective: An Introductory Guide to Corporatist Theory<\/em>. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Wu, N.-t. (1988). The Politics of a Regime Patronage System: Mobilization and Control within an Authoritarian Regime<\/em> [Dissertation].<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

– Who “Makes” the Trail? – A Trail Governance Study from Taiwan Ming-Chien Hsu (\u5f90\u9298\u8b19)Assistant professor, Center for General Education, National Tsing Hua UniversityDeputy Executive Director, Taiwan Thousand Miles Trail AssociationTrailology Instructor, Taiwan Community CollegeTaipei, Taiwan Jacky Tao (\u9676\u4fca\u6210)Head of International Relations,\u00a0Taiwan Thousand Miles Trail AssociationTaipei, Taiwan \u96a8\u8457\u7576\u4ee3\u904a\u61a9\u6216\u74b0\u5883\u4fdd\u8b77\u7684\u9700\u6c42\uff0c\u6b65\u9053\u7ba1\u7406\u8207\u7dad\u8b77\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\u4e5f\u56e0\u61c9\u4e0d\u540c\u570b\u5bb6\u6216\u5340\u57df\u7684\u6b77\u53f2\u8207\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b78\uff0c\u53ca\u61c9\u904b\u800c\u751f\u7684\u516c\u79c1\u5354\u529b\u6a21\u5f0f\u800c\u751f\u3002\u7531\u65bc\u9019\u4e9b\u591a\u91cd\u56e0\u7d20\u7684\u4f5c\u7528\uff0c\u6211\u5011\u4e3b\u5f35\u6b65\u9053\u7684\u7814\u7a76\uff0c\u610f\u5373\u6b65\u9053\u5b78\uff08trailology\uff09\uff0c\u672c\u8cea\u4e0a\u5373\u662f\u7814\u7a76\u6cbb\u7406\u6a21\u5f0f\u7684\u5b78\u554f\u3002 \u5728\u9019\u7bc7\u77ed\u6587\u4e2d\uff0c\u6211\u5011\u4ee5\u53f0\u7063\u7684\u6848\u4f8b\u51fa\u767c\uff0c\u7531\u653f\u6cbb\u793e\u6703\u5b78\u8207\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b78\u7684\u89d2\u5ea6\uff0c\u5206\u6790\u5e7e\u7a2e\u6b65\u9053\u4fee\u7bc9\u7406\u5ff5\u578b\u614b\uff0c\u4e5f\u671f\u671b\u85c9\u7531\u672c\u6b21\u5927\u6703\u7684\u767c\u8868\u8207\u5206\u4eab\uff0c\u64f4\u5145\u570b\u969b\u6848\u4f8b\u8207\u7406\u8ad6\u7d50\u69cb\u3002 Animals and creatures roamed the earth […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"nf_dc_page":"","om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[6],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-75","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-governance"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/75","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=75"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/75\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":103,"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/75\/revisions\/103"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=75"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=75"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mountainsteward.net\/trailology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=75"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}